key words

STEREOTYPICAL  relating to a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

CONFORMS  comply with rules, standards, or laws

SUBVERTS  undermine the power and authority of (an established system or institution)

OBJECTIFICATION  the action of degrading someone to the status of a mere object

SEXUALISATION  to make something sexual in character or quality

HEGEMONY leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others

PATRIARCHAL HEGEMONY leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others (men over women) 

CHALLENGES  a call to someone to participate in a competitive situation or fight to decide who is superior in terms of ability or strength

FETISHISATION  worship of an inanimate object for its supposed magical powers or because it is considered to be inhabited by a spirit

SYMBOLIC ANNIHILATION  the absence of representation, or underrepresentation, of some group of people in the media (often based on their race, sex, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, etc.)

SCOPOPHILIA/ VOYEURISM sexual pleasure derived chiefly from watching others when they are naked or engaged in sexual activity

Theorists

MEDIA LANGUAGE

• Claude Levi-Strauss - Structuralism (Binary Opposition) 
• Roland Barthes - Semiotics 
• Tzvetan Todorov - Narratology (Equilibrium)
• Steve Neale - Theories around Genre (Repetition and Difference)

REPRESENTATION

• bell hooks - Feminism
• David Gauntlet - Theories of Identity (Pick n Mix) 
• Stuart Hall - Representation
• Lisbet Van Zoonen - Feminist Theory (Male Gaze)

INDUSTRY

• Sonia Livingstone and Peter Lunt - Regulation
• Curran and Seaton - Power and Media Industries
• David Hesmondhalgh - Cultural Industries

AUDIENCE

• Albert Vandura - Media Effects (Hypodermic Needle)
• Stuart Hall - Reception Theory (Readings)
• George Gerbner - Cultivation Theory

ADBUSTERS

First impressions:

• no idea what genre - every cover is different, doesn't include contents on the cover
• parody
• political
• mainly central images
• mastheads are all different - identity isn't consistent 
• the magazine doesn't contain any paid-for adverts

Adbusters May/June 2016

• published 6 times a year by Adbusters Media Foundation
• £10.99
• 120,000 readership (website April 2017)
• independent/campaigning/culture jamming genre 

• confusion is a good reaction
• "post-west" - war of the west, America 
• angry gesture and army jacket - anarchy, going against social norms of society
• could look excited - we enjoy war, criticizing our culture
• masthead covered in dirt and sand - destroying identity of magazine, focus on "post-west", vandalism, don't care what the audience thinks about them
• subverts a lot of conventions of magazines - stands out as its own identity
• front cover image isn't anchored with a caption - hermeneutic code, read it to find out
• black background - subverts conventions of consumer/lifestyle magazines
• male in camouflage jacket - not a model, not there for audience to aspire to be him, hermeneutic code 
• front cover in not fully anchored - assumes a level of understanding from the audience
• cover lacks conventions of magazines - what's inside?, genre?, designed to challenge you

"Genre conventions in magazines are completely informed by the social and historical context to which they are made" - Michael Collins

Evaluate this statement with reference to Adbusters. Make reference to genre hybridity 

• genre conventions - things that make magazines and their genres
• different historical and social contexts will affect the conventions of the magazines
• global terrorism, Brexit, Donald Trump elected as president
• evaluate 

How to structure an essay:

1. Read the question and underline key terms
2. Gut reaction - whats your opinion? what argument will you make?
3. Plan - on the answer paper (social, historical, political ideologies, genre hybridity, financial reasons)
4. Introduction - (context - Adbuters Media foundation, 1st published 1989)(definition - genre, why is it important?)(arguament - "In general, Collins.....")
5. Paragraphs (point - a sentence or two, clarifies what the paragraph is about)(evidence - from a very specific source)(argument - theorists, analyse evidence)
6. Conclusion - no new information - need your opinion to come through, repeat what you've already said

• red logo against white draws attention
  
• "red soles are always in season" - lexis refers to the high-end brand but also sore feet on the child ("red soles"), dark humour
• binary opposition - brand against image, conventions of a charity advert
• makes readers feel guilty because they're spending money on expensive shoes, whilst some children don't have any, dominant reading
• lexis targeted towards middle class - more likely to own the shoes, even more guilt
• pure white background is a binary opposite to the image of poverty
• anti-consumerism ideology
• wearing the shoes gives people cultural capital 

• no language, no lexis, no anchorage
• binary opposition of image of refugees trying to escape from somewhere (colour of skin, clothes, location, facial expressions) against catwalk (clothing, location)
• we all live in the same world but everyone lives so differently, complete poverty vs absolute luxury 
• sense of helplessness and confusion
• monochrome and coloured image - emphasizes the difference 
• consumerism fills a void that people feel when they see negative images of 3rd world suffering 
• mid shot shows they're in a really small space together 

COMMODITY FETISHISM  giving a significant value to an object

MARXISM  conflict between the working class and ruling class

• working class is exploited by ruling class
• working class is kept poor, kept in their place
• Adbusters have a very marxist ideology

• dutch tilt - mystery, drama and romance
• "him" - personification, 
• white backgrounds - purity, cleanliness, elegance
• model has tattoos - unconventional for women
• tap has a lot of cultural capital - commodity fetishism
• "poor people" - identified as poor, stating facts to reader
• nothing to anchor the image - confusing, 2 readings, high angle shot with nothing in her hands shows weakness and vulnerability, hands wrinkly because she's had a bath, she's got enough water to have a bath
• we should appreciate water 
• binary opposition of the zucchetti tap - tap is the focus (fetish) 
• water is being glamourised and turned into a product (commodified) 
• you can almost see through the water - crystal clear compared to "pollution"
  
  

'The representation of women in Adbusters is consistently subversive'

I would agree that the representation of women in Abusters is consistently subversive because they are not sexualised for audience pleasure. For example, the magazine has included an image of a woman in a bath, yet only her hands, knees, and bottom of her face are shown. Traditionally, the chance to sexualise women in adverts is desirable because it broadens the target audience, especially heterosexual males; Lizbet Van Zoonen's feminist theory supports this, she also refers to this as the 'male gaze'. Therefore, this representation of the female model subverts stereotypes of magazines and adverts because she hasn't been displayed to attract an audience or to appeal to be desirable. 

The magazine also goes against hegemonic ideas of gender in the image of a female model on a catwalk, which has been covered by another image of refugees in a 3rd world country. This collage forms what Claude Levi-Strauss would call binary opposition, which is emphasized with the difference between colour and monochrome. The female legs connotate the fashion industry, however, the image is subverted because the audience is robbed of seeing her face. 

• Representation is a way to manipulate the audience 
• The dominant ideology of Adbusters is anti-capitalist, by attacking adverts and capitalism (marxist) 

• "went head on against the whole fucking industry"
• "totally dedicated to staying hard copy"
• "We have this culture jammers network, and almost 100,000 people have signed up"
• "there’s been a lot of out-of-the-box thinking, and a lot of young designers don’t wanna spend the rest of their lives kissing corporate ass"
• "Adbusters talk a lot to the converted, but you have a whole bunch of interesting unconverted people so fuck it, convert them"

WEBSITE 

DIFFERENT HOUSE STYLE (FONTS)

REINFORCES BRAND IDENTITY

• SOMETHING THEY DON'T OFFER IN THE MAGAZINE (ADVERT)
• EXTENDS THE BRAND

SOCIAL MEDIA

INTERACTION WITH AUDIENCE

It is important for print magazines such as Adbusters to have an online presence because it opens it's potential target audience to younger adults/ teenagers. For example, the magazine publishers have expanded the brand onto various social media platforms, such as Instagram and Twitter, which are commonly used by younger people in their everyday lives; therefore, this increases the brand awareness. By posting examples of things that can be found in the magazine and on the website, this may increase interest and give new readers an idea of what they'll find in the magazine, which should increase sales. Additionally, it is much easier for younger teenagers to access the content of the magazine online because of the easy accessibility. Sonia Livingstone's Theory of Regulation suggests that because of the freedom that we have on the internet, it is much easier for regulations and restrictions to be bypassed, which makes the magazine even more available for this new audience. 

BUY NOTHING DAY

• "buying stuff will never make you happy"
• want their readers to buy nothing for a day

MAGAZINE INDUSTRY

BRAND IDENTITY  how a business presents itself and how it wants to be perceived by its consumers (e.g logo - builds consumer's trust)

Comparing the brand identity of Woman (August 1964) and Vogue (July 1965);

• Vogue cover emphasises regal connotations of blue/teal - model is superior to audience, high end 
• Woman's model looks relatable and familiar to audience, accessible to everyone 

• Vogue model looks intelligent and confident
• Woman's smile looks naive - forced and passive

• Vogue masthead is disguised - confident mode of address because producer doesn't care if it stands out, selling point is model on the cover, audience needs to know about fashion to appreciate the magazine
• Woman's cover is white - stand out against model, producer wants the audience to see it, attract new readers

• Vogue model is 31 - looks much more mature
• Woman model is roughly 35 - childish smile

• Vogue lexis is difficult to understand - "scintillate", restricted language, part of exclusive readership
• Woman's lexis is easy to read - doesn't restrict audience 

• Vogue contents is mysterious - established and confident brand identity
• You know what you're going to get inside Woman magazine - "seven star improvements" - need to convince target audience to buy the magazine

IPC

Pinpointing exactly how far Time Inc. UK's (formerly IPC Media) roots stretch back into the midst of publishing history is a complicated business. The International Publishing Corporation Ltd was formed in 1963 following the merger of the UK's three leading magazine publishers - George Newnes, Odhams Press and Fleetway Publications - who came together with the Mirror Group to form the International Publishing Corporation (IPC). And IPC Magazines was created five years later, in 1968. But those three original magazine businesses each had their own illustrious history, having been established in 1881, 1890 and 1880 respectively, with a number of the titles they launched in the late 19th Century still being published today under the Time Inc. UK umbrella. And when The Field, launched in 1853, joined the IPC stable in 1994 following the acquisition of Harmsworth Magazines, it saw our family tree reach back even further. IPC was acquired by Time Warner in 2001 and was renamed Time Inc. UK in 2014 after Time Inc. acquired the company in connection with its spinoff from Time Warner.

• Large mainstream organisation
• Media conglomerate 

CURRAN AND SEATON

POWER AND MEDIA INDUSTRIES

• media is controlled by a small number of companies, all driven by power and profit
• media concentration limits variety, creativity and quality

WOMAN MAGAZINE 1964

• Everything you study in component 2 will come up in the exam
• You will get unseen texts in component 1
• In component 2, you need to voice your opinion
• You need to refer to the historical context of the magazines
• You need to make up the question yourself (no definitive question means no definitive answer)
• You don't need to give a balanced argument

ROLAND BARTHES SEMIOTICS 

REFERENTIAL, SYMBOLIC, PROAIRETIC, HERMENEUTIC 

CLAUDE LEVI STRAUSS STRUCTURALISM

BINARY OPPOSITION (WE SEE THE WORLD THROUGH WHAT IT ISN'T)

What makes a magazine a magazine?

• glossy covers - quality
• a lot more advertisements - keeps prices down
• full-page photographs - more about the look and design
• free samples/gifts 
• more gossipy mode of address (colloquial) 
• editorials - less formal and can take a specific point of view 
• can take an exclusionary mode of address - can help sell editions to target audience 

• published weekly by IPC
• set edition: 23-29th august 1964
• price: 7d (7 old pennies), about 80p
• became popular in the post-war period
• in the 1960's, the sales reached 12 million per week

• sans-serif, feminine font - attracts women to the magazine, handwritten looks personal and friendly 
• model looks about 35 - mature readership 
• 7p in 1964, font is larger than other writing = about 80p now - cheap magazine, doesn't exclude any women, stands out so people know it's affordable 
• floral dress - feminine and traditional, not inspiring them to branch out, reinforces hegemonic rules about how women should dress 
• Alfred Hitchcock was one of the most influential filmmakers - readers will believe him, audience may feel proud of themselves
• "FOR YOUR KITCHEN" - ideology that the kitchen is a woman's priority, audience assumes she is a stay at home wife
• lilac background - feminine, appealing to women
• "Every Wednesday" - maintains their readership
• "LINGERIE GOES LIVELY" and "British women have a special magic" - sexualised
• white airbrushed teeth, eyes and font - connotates purity, teeth stand out, aspirational 
• short hair - practical, sensible, mature 
• model is plain and uninteresting - audience can identify as her
• delicate key lighting - women should be bright and optimistic 
• "ARE YOU AN A-LEVEL BEAUTY?" - ideology that women should wear makeup and read the magazine to become an "a-level beauty", hermeneutic code
• "YOUR KITCHEN" - direct address
• through male audiences seeing model and finding her attractive, women may aspire to look like her
• "SEVEN STAR" - even a 5 star kitchen isn't good enough, inadequate   
• not every woman will buy this - plain and boring model, uninteresting plugs, not targeted to upper and middle class 
• masthead large and bright - audience may feel empowered, "woman" includes every female (unlike "girl" or "lady")
• model looking at us - direct address, affectionate, not sexual

• "making the most out of bacon" - housewife role 
• everything is feminine-related - stereotypical 
• image of Jacky Kennedy - inspirational woman
• "makeup to work miracles" - assumption that women aren't attractive without it, hegemony 
• "Beauty" as a heading - rather than "health", more important what a woman looks like 
• "back to school clothes" - targeted towards mothers, reinforces the fact that children are their priority 

DAVID GAUNTLET

THEORY OF IDENTITY

Audiences are not passive 

Media products allow the audience to construct their own identities

• Referred to as the 'pick and mix' theory
• Audiences are more intelligent and can pick what ideologies they want to believe

• "any girl can do it" - "girl" refers to a children and symbolises weakness
• "get the man in your life to do it" - reliant on men, assumption that the audience is straight
• encourages women to be creative - positive approach, stereotypically masculine 
• mode of address is formal, dry and boring - doesn't appeal to all of the audience
• "wise money-saving guide" - need to be smart with your money, women don't have a lot of money to begin with
• "your kitchen" - ownership, positive 
• image of woman teaching their son to cook - encourages men to cook, steering away from stereotypes. However, the image of a woman cooking could cultivate view that women belong in the kitchen 

LISBET VAN ZOONEN
FEMINIST THEORY

• genre is constructed through codes and conventions of media products, and the idea of what is male and what is female
• women's bodies are used in media products as a spectacle (the male gaze)for heterosexual male audiences, which reinforces patriarchal hegemony

• "any English man who hasn't been caught off guard by an english woman...doesn't know what he's missing" - women's purpose in life is to please men
• British women are exotic to men - mysterious and different to men 
• "creatures" and "snow-capped volcano"  - dehumanised/objectification
• saying it's okay to objectify women if your married 
• images of Hitchcock - looks confident, not attractive, symbolic code of film reel, not supposed to find him appealing
• image of Grace Kelly - young and attractive, meant to find her appealing, aspirational model 
• monologue (only person talking) - suggests power and importance
• "the mystery of British women" - saying all women are mysterious, generalising them
• 'sex appeal provides the ideal complement to other thrills I produce on the screen" - sex appeal makes a good film

BELL HOOKS
FEMINIST THEORY

• feminism is a struggle to end patriarchal hegemony and the domination of women
• feminism is a lifestyle choice, it is a political commitment 
• race, class and gender all determine the extent to which individuals are exploited and oppressed
• "feminism is for everyone"

• useless - ruined the dinner 
• emotional - burst into tears, failed at being a woman
• wearing feminine clothes in the house - always trying to impress her husband, still stereotypically attractive
• beer is the main focus - objectification, beer is better than her 
• men are the beer drinkers - the man is the one worried about it 
• women belong in the kitchen - cultivation theory
• dependant on her husband - uses his handkerchief 

Advertising in magazines:

• to pay for them (sales of copies isn't always enough)
• advertising accounts are approximately 1/3 of the total revenue across the industry
• important that the adverts are directed towards the target audience, so that the brands benefit from increased sales 
• high audience engagement with the adverts 
• less distraction from other activities (if you've bought a magazine, you create time for it)
• ability to target niche audiences
• high production values
• potential for placement in highly relevant editorial environment 
• non-intrusive (readers can turn the page)
• long shelf life

• "because you're a woman" repeated - emphasizes that they are expected to do something because they're women, demanding
• (alternative reading) - women are a community, builds a target audience
• women are sexy - not in a bath or shower, can be even sexier if she uses this soap
• naked and feminine pose - sexualised, ideology that men will find them attractive if they use the product
• she is positioned above the text - model is the first thing you see, audience may aspire to be like her and go to find out what she's using
• hair up and makeup on - not what women usually look like when washing
• small font - woman is the main focus 
• "darling" - lexis could be men speaking, want to impress their husbands 
• "gentlest lather" - women are delicate 
• closed body language - not nudity for men, empowering women
• "destroys perspiration odour" - breaking a sweat whilst working at home
• binary opposition between cleanliness and destruction

• mid shots of women looking at her makeup, whilst ignoring the man - emphasises her interest in the makeup and looking good
• putting on makeup to look good for the man - man won't stop looking at her when she has it on 
• first image she already has makeup on - patriarchal hegemony that women should always be wearing makeup
• primary goal of women is to attract a man 
• he is looking at her the same way she looks at the makeup - he likes that she's making the effort to look attractive
• "beauty at a moments notice" - shows how easy it is to put on, no excuse for women not to be wearing it 
• could argue that is empowering - she's not looking at the man, subverting stereotypical hegemonic representations of women 
• set at a train station or working environment - women is out of the house, progressive
• female is object of his gaze - Lizbet Van Zoomen

WOMAN MAGAZINE RELAUNCH 1985

• model looks like she's going out - less house-wife based
• masthead has changed - doesn't look like handwriting, more of a fun mode of address
• lots of bright colours - more confident
• competitions to win cars - women driving is new, encouraging them to go out
• assumptions about women are different 
• still has focus on kitchen - not completely progress, still holds similar ideologies 
• "high street fashion" - working class, target audience hasn't changed 
• "exciting again" - suggests it didn't used to be exciting 

IPC sells audiences to advertisers

SONIA LIVINGSTONE AND PETER HUNT

REGULATION

• IPSO (independent press standards organisation) is how magazines are regulated